Jump to content

Effects of meditation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Electroencephalography has been used for meditation research.

The psychological and physiological effects of meditation have been studied. In recent years, studies of meditation have increasingly involved the use of modern instruments, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography, which are able to observe brain physiology and neural activity in living subjects, either during the act of meditation itself or before and after meditation. Correlations can thus be established between meditative practices and brain structure or function.[1]

Since the 1950s hundreds of studies on meditation have been conducted, but many of the early studies were flawed and thus yielded unreliable results.[2][3] Another major review article also cautioned about possible misinformation and misinterpretation of data related to the subject.[4][5] Contemporary studies have attempted to address many of these flaws with the hope of guiding current research into a more fruitful path.[6]

However, the question of meditation's place in mental health care is far from settled and there is no general consensus among experts. Though meditation is generally deemed useful, recent meta-analyses show small-to-moderate effect sizes. This means that the effect of meditation is roughly comparable to that of the standard measures of self-care like sleep, exercise, nutrition and social intercourse. Importantly, it has a worse safety profile than these standard measures (see section on adverse-effects).[7][8][9][10][11] A recent meta-analysis also indicates that the increased mindfulness experienced by mental health patients may not be the result of explicit mindfulness interventions but more of an artefact of their mental health condition (e.g., depression, anxiety) as it is equally experienced by the participants that were placed in the control condition (e.g., active controls, waiting list). This raises further questions as to what exactly meditation does, if anything, that is significantly different from the heightened self-monitoring and self-care that follows in the wake of spontaneous recovery or from the positive effects of encouragement and care that is usually provided in ordinary health-care settings (see section on the difficulties studying meditation).[12] There also seems to be a critical moderation of the effects of meditation according to individual differences. In one meta-analysis from 2022, involving a total of 7782 participants, the researchers found that a higher baseline level of psychopathology (e.g., depression) was associated with deterioration in mental health after a meditation intervention, and thus was contraindicated.[13]

Effects of mindfulness meditation

[edit]

A previous study commissioned by the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found that meditation interventions reduce multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress.[10] Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses show that mindfulness meditation has several mental health benefits such as bringing about reductions in depression symptoms,[14][15][16] improvements in mood,[17] stress-resilience[17] and attentional control.[17] Mindfulness interventions also appear to be a promising intervention for managing depression in youth.[18][19] Mindfulness meditation is useful for managing stress,[15][20][21][17] anxiety[14][15][21] and also appears to be effective in treating substance use disorders.[22][23][24] A recent meta-analysis by Hilton et al. (2016) including 30 randomized controlled trials found high quality evidence for improvement in depressive symptoms.[25] Other review studies have shown that mindfulness meditation can enhance the psychological functioning of breast cancer survivors,[15] is effective for people with eating disorders[26][27] and may also be effective in treating psychosis.[28][29][30]

Studies have also shown that rumination and worry contribute to mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety,[31] and mindfulness-based interventions are effective in the reduction of worry.[31][32] Some studies suggest that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity, when considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character.[33][34]

Brain mechanisms

[edit]

The analgesic effect of mindfulness meditation may involve multiple brain mechanisms, of which, chronic pain is shown to have a small decrease when performing meditation.[35] Current research demonstrates a lack of high-quality data to support a strong case for clinical prescription of meditation, however future research may further change our understanding of chronic pain treatment and mindfulness,[36] but there are too few studies to allow conclusions about its effects on chronic pain.[37]

Changes in the brain

[edit]

The act of mindful meditation creates alterations in the brain that lead to a heightened ability to improve emotions.[38] In an 8-week mindfulness meditation study, Gotink et al. discovered that amygdala, insula, cingulate cortex, and hippocampus activity decreased.[38] Importantly, these short-term changes are often equated to a brain with longer time spent doing mindfulness meditation and interventions, such as months or years. Another meta-analysis found preliminary evidence for effects in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions associated with body awareness.[39] However, these results should be interpreted with caution as funnel plots indicate that publication bias is an issue in meditation research.[40] A 2016 review using 78 functional neuroimaging studies suggests that different meditation styles are associated with different brain activity.[41] While other studies have found structural changes in the brain may occur, but most studies have utilized weak methodology.[40]

Attention and mindfulness

[edit]

Attention networks and mindfulness meditation

[edit]

Psychological and Buddhist conceptualizations of mindfulness both highlight awareness and attention training as key components, in which levels of mindfulness can be cultivated with practice of mindfulness meditation.[42][17] Focused attention meditation (FAM) and open monitoring meditation (OMM) are distinct types of mindfulness meditation; FAM refers to the practice of intently maintaining focus on one object, whereas OMM is the progression of general awareness of one's surroundings while regulating thoughts.[43][44] Some forms of Buddhist mindfulness meditation may lead to greater cognitive flexibility.[45]

In an active randomized controlled study completed in 2019, participants who practiced mindfulness meditation demonstrated a greater improvement in awareness and attention than participants in the active control condition.[17] Alpha wave neural oscillation power (which is normally associated with an alert resting state) has been shown to be increased by mindfulness in both healthy subjects and patients.[46]

Sustained attention
[edit]

Tasks of sustained attention relate to vigilance and the preparedness that aids completing a particular task goal. Psychological research into the relationship between mindfulness meditation and the sustained attention network have revealed the following:

  • In a continuous performance task[47] an association was found between higher dispositional mindfulness and more stable maintenance of sustained attention.
  • In an electroencephalography study, the attentional blink effect was reduced, and P3b ERP amplitude decreased in a group of participants who completed a mindfulness retreat.[48] The incidence of reduced attentional blink effect relates to an increase in detectability of a second target.
  • A greater degree of attentional resources may also be reflected in faster response times in task performance, as was found for participants with higher levels of mindfulness experience.[49]
Selective attention
[edit]
  • Selective attention as linked with the orientation network, is involved in selecting the relevant stimuli to attend to.
  • Performance in the ability to limit attention to potentially sensory inputs (i.e. selective attention) was found to be higher following the completion of an eight-week MBSR course, compared to a one-month retreat and control group (with no mindfulness training).[49] The ANT task is a general applicable task designed to test the three attention networks, in which participants are required to determine the direction of a central arrow on a computer screen.[50] Efficiency in orienting that represent the capacity to selectively attend to stimuli was calculated by examining changes in the reaction time that accompanied cues indicating where the target occurred relative to the aid of no cues.
  • Meditation experience was found to correlate negatively with reaction times on an Eriksen flanker task measuring responses to global and local figures. Similar findings have been observed for correlations between mindfulness experience in an orienting score of response times taken from Attention Network Task performance.[51]
  • Participants who engaged in the Meditation Breath Attention Score exercise performed better on anagram tasks and reported greater focused attention on this task compared to those who did not undergo this exercise.[52]
Executive control attention
[edit]
  • Executive control attention include functions of inhibiting the conscious processing of distracting information. In the context of mindful meditation, distracting information relates to attention grabbing mental events such as thoughts related to the future or past.[44]
  • More than one study have reported findings of a reduced Stroop effect following mindfulness meditation training.[45][53][54] The Stroop effect indexes interference created by having words printed in color that differ to the read semantic meaning e.g. green printed in red. However findings for this task are not consistently found.[55][56] For instance the MBSR may differ to how mindful one becomes relative to a person who is already high in trait mindfulness.[57]
  • Using the Attention Network Task (a version of Eriksen flanker task[50]) it was found that error scores that indicate executive control performance were reduced in experienced meditators [49] and following a brief five-session mindfulness training program.[53]
  • A neuroimaging study supports behavioral research findings that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with greater proficiency to inhibit distracting information. As greater activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was shown for mindfulness meditators than matched controls.[58]
  • Participants with at least 6 years of experience meditating performed better on the Stroop Test compared to participants who had not had experience meditating.[59] The group of meditators also had lower reaction times during this test than the group of non-meditators.[59]
  • Following a Stroop test, reduced amplitude of the P3 ERP component was found for a meditation group relative to control participants. This was taken to signify that mindfulness meditation improves executive control functions of attention. An increased amplitude in the N2 ERP component was also observed in the mindfulness meditation group, thought to reflect more efficient perceptual discrimination in earlier stages of perceptual processing.[60]

Emotion regulation and mindfulness

[edit]

Research shows meditation practices lead to greater emotional regulation abilities. Mindfulness can help people become more aware of thoughts in the present moment, and this increased self-awareness leads to better processing and control over one's responses to surroundings or circumstances.[61][62]

Positive effects of this heightened awareness include a greater sense of empathy for others, an increase in positive patterns of thinking, and a reduction in anxiety.[62][61] Reductions in rumination also have been found following mindfulness meditation practice, contributing to the development of positive thinking and emotional well-being.[63]

Evidence of mindfulness and emotion regulation outcomes

[edit]

Emotional reactivity can be measured and reflected in brain regions related to the production of emotions.[64] It can also be reflected in tests of attentional performance, indexed in poorer performance in attention related tasks. The regulation of emotional reactivity as initiated by attentional control capacities can be taxing to performance, as attentional resources are limited.[65]

  • Patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) exhibited reduced amygdala activation in response to negative self-beliefs following an MBSR intervention program that involves mindfulness meditation practice.[66]
  • The LPP ERP component indexes arousal and is larger in amplitude for emotionally salient stimuli relative to neutral.[67][68][69] Individuals higher in trait mindfulness showed lower LPP responses to high arousal unpleasant images. These findings suggest that individuals with higher trait mindfulness were better able to regulate emotional reactivity to emotionally evocative stimuli.[70]
  • Participants who completed a seven-week mindfulness training program demonstrated a reduction in a measure of emotional interference (measured as slower responses times following the presentation of emotional relative to neutral pictures). This suggests a reduction in emotional interference.[71]
  • Following a MBSR intervention, decreases in social anxiety symptom severity were found, as well as increases in bilateral parietal cortex neural correlates. This is thought to reflect the increased employment of inhibitory attentional control capacities to regulate emotions.[72][73]
  • Participants who engaged in emotion-focus meditation and breathing meditation exhibited delayed emotional response to negatively valanced film stimuli compared to participants who did not engage in any type of meditation.[74]

Controversies in mindful emotion regulation

[edit]

It is debated as to whether top-down executive control regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC),[75] are required[73] or not[66] to inhibit reactivity of the amygdala activation related to the production of evoked emotional responses. Arguably an initial increase in activation of executive control regions developed during mindfulness training may lessen with increasing mindfulness expertise.[76]

Furthermore, current research data is inconclusive and incomplete in linking positive effects of mindful meditation with a variety of reported positive effects. Additional high-fidelity studies are needed before a more complete understanding of the full effects of mindfulness can be reached.[36][38][35]

Stress reduction

[edit]

Research has shown stress reduction benefits from mindfulness.[77][78][79] A 2019 study tested the effects of meditation on the psychological well-being, work stress, and blood pressure of employees working in the United Kingdom. One group of participants were instructed to meditate once a day using a mindfulness app on their smartphones, while the control group did not engage in meditation. Measurements of well-being, stress, and perceived workplace support were taken for both groups before the intervention and then again after four months. Based on self-report questionnaires, the participants who engaged in meditation showed a significant increase in psychological well-being and perceived workplace support. The meditators also reported a significant decrease in anxiety and stress levels.[79]

Another study conducted to understand association between mindfulness, perceived stress and work engagement indicated that mindfulness was associated with lower perceived stress and higher work engagement.[80]

Other research shows decreased stress levels in people who engage in meditation after shorter periods of time as well. Evidence of significant stress reduction was found after only three weeks of meditation intervention.[17] Brief, daily meditation sessions can alter one's behavioral response to stressors, improving coping mechanisms and decreasing the adverse impact caused by stress.[81][82] A study from 2016 examined anxiety and emotional states of naive meditators before and after a seven-day meditation retreat in Thailand. Results displayed a significant reduction in perceived stress after this traditional Buddhist meditation retreat.[82]

Insomnia and sleep

[edit]

Chronic insomnia is often associated with anxious hyperarousal and frustration over inability to sleep.[83] Mindfulness has been shown to reduce insomnia and improve sleep quality, although self-reported measures show larger effects than objective measures.[83][84]

Future directions

[edit]

A large part of mindfulness research is dependent on technology. As new technology continues to be developed, new imaging techniques will become useful in this field. Real-time fMRI might give immediate feedback and guide participants through the programs. It could also be used to more easily train and evaluate mental statesFunctional magnetic resonance imaging during meditation itself.[85]

Effects of other types of meditation

[edit]

Insight (Vipassana) meditation

[edit]

Vipassana or "insight" meditation is a form of mindfulness meditation believed[by whom?] to have been taught by the Buddha Gautama. The practice aims to increase a sense of awareness of the present moment. The practitioner becomes a quiet observer of their thoughts, emotions, and sensations; allowing them to come and go without passing judgement.[86][87] A plethora of evidence now exists to suggest that vipassana meditation does indeed lead to increased mindfulness, but the benefits of the practice do not stop there. It has also been found to reduce stress and increase both self-kindness and overall well-being.[88]

Electroencephalography studies on Vipassana meditators seemed to indicate significant increase in parieto-occipital gamma rhythms in experienced meditators (35–45 Hz).[89] In another study conducted by NIMHANS on Vipassana meditators, researchers found readings associated with improved cognitive processing after a session of meditation, with distinct and graded difference in the readings between novice meditators and experienced meditators.[90]

Khoury and colleagues (2017) conducted a meta-analysis including a total of 21 studies and 2,912 participants. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of traditional vipassana meditation retreats in various populations including advanced meditators, novice meditators, and incarcerated individuals. More specifically, it explored the psychological outcomes including anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and stress following the retreats, evaluated the impacts of the retreats on levels of mindfulness, and explored variables moderating the effectiveness of traditional retreats. Results suggested that traditional vipassana meditation retreats were moderately effective at improving psychological outcomes, with novice meditators and members of the general population experiencing particularly large reductions in anxiety, depression, and stress when compared to both experienced meditators and incarcerated individuals. Moreover, the results suggested an increased capacity for emotional regulation, acceptance, compassion, and mindfulness as well as higher quality of life scores following the retreats across all populations. These results held steady even at follow-up.[91]

An essential component to the Vipassana mediation approach is the focus on awareness, referring to bodily sensations and psychological status. In a study conducted by Zeng et al. (2013), awareness was described as the acknowledgement of consciousness which is monitoring all aspects of the environment.[92] This definition differentiates the concept of awareness from mindfulness. The emphasis on awareness, and the way it assists in monitoring emotion, is unique to this meditative practice.

Kundalini yoga

[edit]

Kundalini yoga has proved to increase the prevention of cognitive decline and evaluate the response of biomarkers to treatment, thereby shedding light on the underlying mechanisms of the link between Kundalini Yoga and cognitive impairment. For the study, 81 participants aged 55 and older who had subjective memory complaints and met criteria for mild cognitive impairment, indicated by a total score of 0.5 on the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale. The results showed that at 12 weeks, both the yoga group showed significant improvements in recall memory and visual memory and showed a significant sustained improvement in memory up to the 24-week follow-up, the yoga group showed significant improvement in verbal fluency and sustained significant improvements in executive functioning at week 24. In addition, the yoga cohort showed significant improvement in depressive symptoms, apathy, and resilience from emotional stress. This research was provided by Helen Lavretsky, M.D. and colleagues.[93] In another study, Kundalini Yoga did not show significant effectiveness in treating obsessive-compulsive disorders compared with Relaxation/Meditation.[94]

Sahaja yoga and mental silence

[edit]

Sahaja yoga meditation is regarded as a mental silence meditation, and has been shown to correlate with particular brain[95][96] and brain wave[97][98][99] characteristics. One study has led to suggestions that Sahaja meditation involves 'switching off' irrelevant brain networks for the maintenance of focused internalized attention and inhibition of inappropriate information.[100] Sahaja meditators appear to benefit from lower depression[101] and scored above control group for emotional well-being and mental health measures on SF-36 ratings.[102][103][104]

A study comparing practitioners of Sahaja Yoga meditation with a group of non-meditators doing a simple relaxation exercise, measured a drop in skin temperature in the meditators compared to a rise in skin temperature in the non-meditators as they relaxed. The researchers noted that all other meditation studies that have observed skin temperature have recorded increases and none have recorded a decrease in skin temperature. This suggests that Sahaja Yoga meditation, being a mental silence approach, may differ both experientially and physiologically from simple relaxation.[99]

Transcendental Meditation

[edit]

In a 2006 review, Transcendental Meditation proved comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety.[94] In another 2006 review, study participants demonstrated a one Hertz reduction in electroencephalography alpha wave frequency relative to controls.[105]

A 2012 meta-analysis published in Psychological Bulletin, which reviewed 163 individual studies, found that Transcendental Meditation performed no better overall than other meditation techniques in improving psychological variables.[106]

A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association said that Transcendental Meditation could be considered as a treatment for hypertension, although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.[107]

A 2014 review found moderate evidence for improvement in anxiety, depression and pain with low evidence for improvement in stress and mental health-related quality of life.[108][109]

Transcendental Meditation may reduce blood pressure, according to a 2015 review that compared it to control groups. A trend over time indicated that practicing Transcendental Meditation may lower blood pressure. Such effects are comparable to other lifestyle interventions. Conflicting findings across reviews and a potential risk of bias indicated the necessity of further evidence.[110][111]

Effects of loving, kindness, and compassion

[edit]

Several meta-analyses have examined the effects of mindful meditation on one’s loving, kindness, and compassionate disposition and behaviors. Significant increases in self-reported self-compassion. Compassion, and well-being were reported alongside decreases in depression and anxiety.[112] Another study indicated an increase in positive emotions.[113][114] There may be further benefits that are yet to be discovered, with only preliminary data on mindfulness and mediation. Further studies and explorations into the effects of mindful meditation on the self are needed to draw further conclusions.[114][113][112]

Research on unspecified or multiple types of meditation

[edit]

Brain activity

[edit]

The medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices have been found to be relatively deactivated during meditation by experienced meditators using concentration, loving-kindness, and choiceless awareness meditation.[115] In addition experienced meditators were found to have stronger coupling between the posterior cingulate, dorsal anterior cingulate, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices both when meditating and when not meditating.[116] Over time meditation can actually increase the integrity of both gray and white matter. The added amount of gray matter found in the brain stem after meditation improves communication between the cortex and all other areas within the brain.[117][118] Meditation often stimulates a large network of cortical regions including the frontal and parietal regions, lateral occipital lobe, the insular cortex, thalamic nuclei, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum region in the brain. These parts of the brain are connected with attention and the default network of the brain which is associated to day dreaming.[119]

Strengthening of the caudate has been found in avid meditators and yogis.[120]

In addition, both meditation and yoga have been found to have impacts on the brain, specifically the caudate.[121] Strengthening of the caudate has been shown in meditators as well as yogis. The increased connectedness of the caudate has potential to be responsible for the improved well-being that is associated with yoga and meditation.[120]

Changes in the brain

[edit]

Meditation is under preliminary research to assess possible changes in grey matter concentrations.[40]

Published research suggests that meditation can facilitate neuroplasticity and connectivity in brain regions specifically related to emotion regulation and attention.[122][123]

Attention and mind wandering

[edit]

Non-directive forms of meditation where the meditator lets their mind wander freely can actually produce higher levels of activity in the default mode network when compared to a resting state or having the brain in a neutral place.[124][125] These Non directive forms of meditation allows the meditators to have better control over thoughts during everyday activities or when focusing on specific task due to a reduced frustration at the brains mind wandering process.[125] When given a specific task, meditation can allow quicker response to changing environmental stimuli. Meditation can allow the brain to decrease attention to unwanted responses of irrelevant environmental stimuli and a reduces the Stroop effect. Those who meditate have regularly demonstrated more control on what they focus their attention on while maintaining a mindful awareness on what is around them.[126]  Experienced meditators have been shown to have an increased ability when it comes to conflict monitoring[17] and find it easier to switch between competing stimuli.[127] Those who practice meditation experience an increase of attentional resources in the brain and steady meditation practice can lead to the reduction of the attentional blink due to a decreased mental exertion when identifying important stimuli.[127]

Perception

[edit]

Studies have shown that meditation has both short-term and long-term effects on various perceptual faculties. In 1984 a study showed that meditators have a significantly lower detection threshold for light stimuli of short duration.[128] In 2000 a study of the perception of visual illusions by zen masters, novice meditators, and non-meditators showed statistically significant effects found for the Poggendorff Illusion but not for the Müller-Lyer Illusion. The zen masters experienced a statistically significant reduction in initial illusion (measured as error in millimeters) and a lower decrement in illusion for subsequent trials.[129] Tloczynski has described the theory of mechanism behind the changes in perception that accompany mindfulness meditation thus: "A person who meditates consequently perceives objects more as directly experienced stimuli and less as concepts… With the removal or minimization of cognitive stimuli and generally increasing awareness, meditation can therefore influence both the quality (accuracy) and quantity (detection) of perception."[129] Brown points to this as a possible explanation of the phenomenon: "[the higher rate of detection of single light flashes] involves quieting some of the higher mental processes which normally obstruct the perception of subtle events."[130] In other words, the practice may temporarily or permanently alter some of the top-down processing involved in filtering subtle events usually deemed noise by the perceptual filters.[130]

Memory

[edit]

Meditation enhances memory capacity specifically in the working memory and increases executive functioning by helping participants better understand what is happening moment for moment.[131][132] Those who meditate regularly have demonstrated the ability to better process and distinguish important information from the working memory and store it into long-term memory with more accuracy than those who do not practice meditation techniques.[118] Meditation may be able to expand the amount of information that can be held within working memory and by so doing is able to improve IQ scores and increase individual intelligence.[124] The encoding process for both audio and visual information has been shown to be more accurate and detailed when meditation is used.[127] Though there are limited studies on meditation's effects on long-term memory, because of meditations ability to increase attentional awareness, episodic long-term memory is believed to be more vivid and accurate for those who meditate regularly. Meditation has also shown to decrease memory complaints from those with Alzheimer's disease which also suggests the benefits meditation could have on episodic long-term memory which is linked to Alzheimer's.[133]

Calming and relaxation

[edit]

Electroencephalography activity slows as a result of meditation.[134] Some types of meditation may lead to a calming effect by reducing sympathetic nervous system activity while increasing parasympathetic nervous system activity. Or, equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and increase in relaxation.[135]

Herbert Benson, founder of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response".[136] The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.[137] Benson wrote The Relaxation Response to document the benefits of meditation, which in 1975 were not yet widely known.[138]

Aging

[edit]

There is no good evidence to indicate that meditation affects the brain in aging.[139]

Happiness and emotional well-being

[edit]

Studies have shown meditators to have higher happiness than control groups, although this may be due to non-specific factors such as meditators having better general self-care.[140][141][102][101]

Positive relationships have been found between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of the brain and both meditation and the subject's subjective happiness score.[142][143][144][145][40][146] A recent study found that participants who engaged in a body-scan meditation for about 20 minutes self-reported higher levels of happiness and decrease in anxiety compared to participants who just rested during the 20-minute time span. These results suggest that an increase in awareness of one's body through meditation causes a state of selflessness and a feeling of connectedness. This result then leads to reports of positive emotions.[147]

A technique known as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) displays significant benefits for mental health and coping behaviors. Participants who had no prior experience with MBSR reported a significant increase in happiness after eight weeks of MBSR practice. Focus on the present moment and increased awareness of one's thoughts can help monitor and reduce judgment or negative thoughts, causing a report of higher emotional well-being.[148] The MBSR program and evidence for its effectiveness is described in Jon Kabat-Zinn's book Full Catastrophe Living.[149]

Pain

[edit]

Meditation has been shown to reduce pain perception.[150] An intervention known as mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) has been subject to a range of studies demonstrating its effectiveness.[151][152]

Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness

[edit]

Meditation and mindfulness have also been correlated with unpleasant experiences, but the potential for adverse effects from meditation has received limited attention in scientific articles[153][154][155][web 1] and the popular press.[web 2][web 3][web 4][web 5]

Contemplative traditions

[edit]

According to Farias et al. (2020) the most common adverse effects of meditation are anxiety and depression.[153] Other adverse affects may include depersonalization[153] or altered sense of self or the world,[156] distorted emotions or thoughts, and, in a few cases, visual and auditory psychosis, and with pre-existing historical factors suicide.[153][157][158][159]

Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that, of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences (such as anxiety, fear, distorted emotions or thoughts, altered sense of self or the world), which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice. Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation were more likely to report unpleasant side effects. Adverse effects were less frequently reported in women and religious meditators.[160]

Meditation also has an addictive potential as it both offers biochemical rewards and socially acceptable avenues for escapism (like internet use, social media, substance abuse).[161][162] Using spiritual ideas and practices "to sidestep or avoid facing unresolved emotional issues, psychological wounds, and unfinished developmental tasks"[163] is known as Spiritual bypass, a term introduced in the mid 1980s by John Welwood, a Buddhist teacher and psychotherapist.[163]

"Zen sickness", exhaustion caused by prolonged intense practice and self-neglect is described by Hakuin[164] and Bankei.

Mindfulness

[edit]

In recent years both the soundness of the scientific foundations and the desirability of the societal effects of mindfulness have been questioned.[165][166][167][168]

Britton et al. (2019), in a study on the effects of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs), found negative side-effects in 37% of the sample while lasting bad effects in 6–14% of the sample.[169] Most of the side effects were related to signs of dysregulated arousal (i.e., hyperarousal and dissociation). The majority of these adverse events occurred as a result of regular practice at home or during class something that challenges the notion that it is only intense practice that can give rise to negative experiences; as it turns out intense all-day retreats or working with difficulty practice accounts for only 6% of adverse effects. The symptoms most readily recognized as negative were those of hyperarousal (e.g., anxiety and insomnia). On the other hand, while dissociation symptoms (e.g., emotional blunting, derealization, and self-disturbance) were both less frequent and less likely to be appraised as negative, they were still associated with more than 5–10 times greater risk for lasting bad effects… This means that re-appraisal of dissociative symptoms via non-judgmental acceptance is not sufficient to prevent impairment in functioning and should not constitute the only response. Instead, training in how to recognize dissociative symptoms as potential indicators of the need for intervention, which have recently been added to some mindfulness teacher training programs may be important.[170]

There is also mounting evidence that mindfulness can disturb various prosocial behaviors. By blunting emotions, in particular the social emotions of guilt and shame, it may produce deficits in the feelings of empathy and remorse thus creating calm but callous practitioners. Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.[171] Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of selfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.[172]

These new findings about mindfulness' socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use mindfulness as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, “If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships”.[173][171] In line with this, a meta-analysis by Kreplin et al. (2018) concluded that meditation only has a limited effect in increasing prosocial behaviours (e.g., empathy, compassion).[11]

Mindfulness is not helpful if it used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life, in which case it will function as just another form of experiential avoidance and potentially exacerbate the crisis. In such situations, it may instead be helpful to apply mindful attitudes while actively engaging with current problems.[174][page needed] According to the NIH, meditation and mindfulness should not be used as a replacement for conventional health care or as a reason to postpone seeing a doctor.[175]

Support

[edit]

Organizations such as Cheetah House and Meditating in Safety document research on problems arising in meditation, and offer help for meditators in distress or those recovering from meditation-related health problems. In some cases, adverse effects may be attributed to "improper use of meditation"[176] or the aggravation of a preexisting condition; however, developing research in this area suggests the need for deeper engagement with the causes of severe distress, which previous "meditation teachers have perhaps too quickly and rather insensitively dismissed as pre-existing or unrelated psychopathology".[177] Where meditation is prescribed or offered as a treatment,

principles of informed consent require that treatment choice be based in part on the balance of benefits to harms, and therefore can only be made if harms are adequately measured and known.[178]

Difficulties in the scientific study of meditation

[edit]

Weaknesses in historic meditation and mindfulness research

[edit]
A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic blood pressure[2]

In June 2007, the United States National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies involving five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, tai chi, and qigong, and included all studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse. The report concluded:

Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results. (p. 6)

It noted that there is no theoretical explanation of health effects from meditation common to all meditation techniques.[2]

A version of this report subsequently published in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine in 2008 stated: "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to validity in every major quality domain assessed." This was despite a statistically significant increase in quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956 and 2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.[6] These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.

Of more than 3,000 scientific studies that were found in a comprehensive search of 17 relevant databases, only about 4% had randomised controlled trials (RCTs), which are designed to exclude the placebo effect.[2]

In a 2013 meta-analysis, Awasthi argued that meditation is defined poorly and despite the research studies showing clinical efficacy, exact mechanisms of action remain unclear.[179] A 2017 commentary was similarly mixed,[4][5] with concerns including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate in mindfulness and meditation research.[180]

Position statements

[edit]

A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association evaluated the evidence for the effectiveness of Transcendental Meditation as a treatment for hypertension as "unknown/unclear/uncertain or not well-established", and stated: "Because of many negative studies or mixed results and a paucity of available trials... other meditation techniques are not recommended in clinical practice to lower BP at this time."[181] According to the American Heart Association, while there are promising results about the impact of meditation in reducing blood pressure and managing insomnia, depression and anxiety, it is not a replacement for healthy lifestyle changes and is not a substitute for effective medication.[182]

Methodological obstacles

[edit]

The term meditation encompasses a wide range of practices and interventions rooted in different traditions, but research literature has sometimes failed to adequately specify the nature of the particular meditation practice(s) being studied.[183] Different forms of meditation practice may yield different results depending on the factors being studied.[183]

The presence of a number of intertwined factors including the effects of meditation, the theoretical orientation of how meditation practices are taught, the cultural background of meditators, and generic group effects complicates the task of isolating the effects of meditation:[77]

Numerous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of a variety of meditation practices. It has been unclear to what extent these practices share neural correlates. Interestingly, a recent study compared electroencephalogram activity during a focused-attention and open monitoring meditation practice from practitioners of two Buddhist traditions. The researchers found that the differences between the two meditation traditions were more pronounced than the differences between the two types of meditation. These data are consistent with our findings that theoretical orientation of how a practice is taught strongly influences neural activity during these practices. However, the study used long-term practitioners from different cultures, which may have confounded the results.[184]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Rahimian S (30 August 2021). "Commentary: Content-Free Awareness: EEG-fcMRI Correlates of Consciousness as Such in an Expert Meditator". PsyArXiv. doi:10.31234/osf.io/6q5b2. S2CID 242883247.
  2. ^ a b c d Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research" (PDF). Evidence Report/Technology Assessment (155): 1–263. PMC 4780968. PMID 17764203. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009.
  3. ^ Lutz A, Dunne JD, Davidson RJ (2007). "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction". In Zelazo PD, Moscovitch M, Thompson E (eds.). The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 499–552. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020. ISBN 978-0-511-81678-9. S2CID 2635196.
  4. ^ a b Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE (January 2018). "Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 36–61. doi:10.1177/1745691617709589. PMC 5758421. PMID 29016274.
  5. ^ a b Stetka B (October 2017). "Where's the Proof That Mindfulness Meditation Works?". Scientific American. 29 (1): 20. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20.
  6. ^ a b Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Barnes V, Carlson LE, Dusek JA, Shannahoff-Khalsa D (December 2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14 (10): 1199–213. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0307. PMID 19123875. S2CID 43745958.
  7. ^ Fincham GW, Strauss C, Montero-Marin J, Cavanagh K (2023). "Effect of breathwork on stress and mental health: A meta-analysis of randomised-controlled trials". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 432. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13..432F. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-27247-y. PMC 9828383. PMID 36624160.
  8. ^ Galante J, Friedrich C, Dalgleish T, Jones PB, White JR (2023). "Systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials assessing mindfulness-based programs for mental health promotion". Nature Mental Health. 1 (7): 462–476. doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00081-5. PMC 7615230. PMID 37867573.
  9. ^ Goldberg SB, Riordan KM, Sun S, Davidson RJ (2022). "The Empirical Status of Mindfulness-Based Interventions: A Systematic Review of 44 Meta-Analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 17 (1): 108–130. doi:10.1177/1745691620968771. PMC 8364929. PMID 33593124.
  10. ^ a b Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA (March 2014). "Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–68. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196.
  11. ^ a b Kreplin U, Farias M, Brazil IA (2018). "The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Scientific Reports. 8 (2403). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z. PMC 5799363. PMID 29402955.
  12. ^ Tran US, Birnbaum L, Burzler MA, Hegewisch UJ, Ramazanova D, Voracek M (2022). "Self-reported mindfulness accounts for the effects of mindfulness interventions and nonmindfulness controls on self-reported mental health: A preregistered systematic review and three-level meta-analysis of 146 randomized controlled trials". British Journal of Health Psychology. 148 (1–2): 86–106. doi:10.1037/bul0000359.
  13. ^ Buric I, Farias M, Driessen JM, Brazil IA (2022). "Individual differences in meditation interventions: A meta-analytic study". British Journal of Health Psychology. 27 (3): 1043–1076. doi:10.1111/bjhp.12589. PMC 9543193. PMID 35224829.
  14. ^ a b Strauss C, Cavanagh K, Oliver A, Pettman D (April 2014). "Mindfulness-based interventions for people diagnosed with a current episode of an anxiety or depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". PLOS ONE. 9 (4): e96110. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...996110S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096110. PMC 3999148. PMID 24763812.
  15. ^ a b c d Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C (June 2015). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 78 (6): 519–28. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009. PMID 25818837.
  16. ^ Jain FA, Walsh RN, Eisendrath SJ, Christensen S, Rael Cahn B (2014). "Critical analysis of the efficacy of meditation therapies for acute and subacute phase treatment of depressive disorders: a systematic review". Psychosomatics. 56 (2): 140–52. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2014.10.007. PMC 4383597. PMID 25591492.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h Walsh KM, Saab BJ, Farb NA (8 January 2019). "Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Subjective Well-Being: Active Randomized Controlled Trial and Experience Sampling Study". JMIR Mental Health. 6 (1): e10844. doi:10.2196/10844. ISSN 2368-7959. PMC 6329416. PMID 30622094.
  18. ^ Simkin DR, Black NB (July 2014). "Meditation and mindfulness in clinical practice". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 23 (3): 487–534. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.03.002. PMID 24975623.
  19. ^ Zoogman S, Goldberg SB, Hoyt WT (January 2014). "Mindfulness Interventions with Youth: A Meta-Analysis". Mindfulness. 59 (4): 297–302. doi:10.1093/sw/swu030. PMID 25365830. S2CID 14256504.
  20. ^ Sharma M, Rush SE (October 2014). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a stress management intervention for healthy individuals: a systematic review". Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine. 19 (4): 271–86. doi:10.1177/2156587214543143. PMID 25053754.
  21. ^ a b Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D (April 2010). "The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 78 (2): 169–83. doi:10.1037/a0018555. PMC 2848393. PMID 20350028.
  22. ^ Chiesa A, Serretti A (April 2014). "Are mindfulness-based interventions effective for substance use disorders? A systematic review of the evidence". Substance Use & Misuse. 49 (5): 492–512. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.770027. PMID 23461667. S2CID 34990668.
  23. ^ Garland EL, Froeliger B, Howard MO (January 2014). "Mindfulness training targets neurocognitive mechanisms of addiction at the attention-appraisal-emotion interface". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 4 (173): 173. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00173. PMC 3887509. PMID 24454293.
  24. ^ Black DS (April 2014). "Mindfulness-based interventions: an antidote to suffering in the context of substance use, misuse, and addiction". Substance Use & Misuse. 49 (5): 487–91. doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.860749. PMID 24611846. S2CID 34770367.
  25. ^ Hilton L, Hempel S, Ewing BA, Apaydin E, Xenakis L, Newberry S, Colaiaco B, Maher AR, Shanman RM, Sorbero ME, Maglione MA (April 2017). "Mindfulness Meditation for Chronic Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 51 (2): 199–213. doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2. PMC 5368208. PMID 27658913.
  26. ^ Godfrey KM, Gallo LC, Afari N (April 2015). "Mindfulness-based interventions for binge eating: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 38 (2): 348–62. doi:10.1007/s10865-014-9610-5. PMID 25417199. S2CID 22953790.
  27. ^ Olson KL, Emery CF (January 2015). "Mindfulness and weight loss: a systematic review". Psychosomatic Medicine. 77 (1): 59–67. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000127. PMID 25490697. S2CID 32414780.
  28. ^ Shonin E, Van Gordon W, Griffiths MD (February 2014). "Do mindfulness-based therapies have a role in the treatment of psychosis?" (PDF). The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 48 (2): 124–7. doi:10.1177/0004867413512688. PMID 24220133. S2CID 32414692.
  29. ^ Chadwick P (May 2014). "Mindfulness for psychosis". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 204 (5): 333–4. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.136044. PMID 24785766.
  30. ^ Khoury B, Lecomte T, Gaudiano BA, Paquin K (October 2013). "Mindfulness interventions for psychosis: a meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Research. 150 (1): 176–84. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.055. PMID 23954146. S2CID 25506013.
  31. ^ a b Querstret D, Cropley M (December 2013). "Assessing treatments used to reduce rumination and/or worry: a systematic review" (PDF). Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (8): 996–1009. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.004. hdl:2164/3892. PMID 24036088.
  32. ^ Gu J, Strauss C, Bond R, Cavanagh K (April 2015). "How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of meditation studies". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006. PMID 25689576. S2CID 4117449.
  33. ^ Crescentini C, Capurso V (2015). "Mindfulness meditation and explicit and implicit indicators of personality and self-concept changes". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 44. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00044. PMC 4310269. PMID 25688222.
  34. ^ Crescentini C, Matiz A, Fabbro F (2015). "Improving personality/character traits in individuals with alcohol dependence: the influence of mindfulness-oriented meditation". Journal of Addictive Diseases. 34 (1): 75–87. doi:10.1080/10550887.2014.991657. PMID 25585050. S2CID 8250105.
  35. ^ a b Hilton L, Hempel S, Ewing BA, Apaydin E, Xenakis L, Newberry S, Colaiaco B, Maher AR, Shanman RM, Sorbero ME, Maglione MA (April 2017). "Mindfulness Meditation for Chronic Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 51 (2): 199–213. doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2. ISSN 0883-6612. PMC 5368208. PMID 27658913.
  36. ^ a b Bawa FL, Mercer SW, Atherton RJ, Clague F, Keen A, Scott NW, Bond CM (June 2015). "Does mindfulness improve outcomes in patients with chronic pain? Systematic review and meta-analysis". British Journal of General Practice. 65 (635): e387–e400. doi:10.3399/bjgp15X685297. ISSN 0960-1643. PMC 4439829. PMID 26009534.
  37. ^ Jensen MP, Day MA, Miró J (March 2014). "Neuromodulatory treatments for chronic pain: efficacy and mechanisms". Nature Reviews. Neurology. 10 (3): 167–78. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2014.12. PMC 5652321. PMID 24535464.
  38. ^ a b c Gotink RA, Meijboom R, Vernooij MW, Smits M, Hunink MM (October 2016). "8-week Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction induces brain changes similar to traditional long-term meditation practice – A systematic review". Brain and Cognition. 108: 32–41. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.07.001. PMID 27429096.
  39. ^ Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. ISSN 1873-7528. PMID 24705269. S2CID 207090878.
  40. ^ a b c d Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269. S2CID 207090878.
  41. ^ Fox KC, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K (June 2016). "Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: A review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 65: 208–28. arXiv:1603.06342. Bibcode:2016arXiv160306342F. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.021. PMID 27032724. S2CID 9451371.
  42. ^ Kabat-Zinn J (2003). "Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 10 (2): 144–156. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bpg016.
  43. ^ Lippelt DP, Hommel B, Colzato LS (2014). "Focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindness meditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, and creativity - A review". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 1083. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01083. PMC 4171985. PMID 25295025.
  44. ^ a b Lutz A, Slagter HA, Dunne JD, Davidson RJ (April 2008). "Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 12 (4): 163–9. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005. PMC 2693206. PMID 18329323.
  45. ^ a b Moore A, Malinowski P (March 2009). "Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility". Consciousness and Cognition. 18 (1): 176–86. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008. PMID 19181542. S2CID 9818458.
  46. ^ Lomas T, Ivtzan I, Fu CH (October 2015). "A systematic review of the neurophysiology of mindfulness on EEG oscillations" (PDF). Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 57: 401–410. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.018. PMID 26441373. S2CID 7276590.
  47. ^ Schmertz SK, Anderson PL, Robins DL (2009). "The relation between self-report mindfulness and performance on tasks of sustained attention". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 31 (1): 60–66. doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9086-0. S2CID 143771349.
  48. ^ Slagter HA, Lutz A, Greischar LL, Francis AD, Nieuwenhuis S, Davis JM, Davidson RJ (June 2007). "Mental training affects distribution of limited brain resources". PLOS Biology. 5 (6): e138. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050138. PMC 1865565. PMID 17488185.
  49. ^ a b c Jha AP, Krompinger J, Baime MJ (June 2007). "Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention". Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. 7 (2): 109–19. doi:10.3758/cabn.7.2.109. PMID 17672382.
  50. ^ a b Fan J, McCandliss BD, Sommer T, Raz A, Posner MI (April 2002). "Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 14 (3): 340–7. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.590.8796. doi:10.1162/089892902317361886. PMID 11970796. S2CID 12681459.
  51. ^ van den Hurk PA, Giommi F, Gielen SC, Speckens AE, Barendregt HP (June 2010). "Greater efficiency in attentional processing related to mindfulness meditation". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 63 (6): 1168–80. doi:10.1080/17470210903249365. PMID 20509209. S2CID 717916.
  52. ^ Green JP, Black KN (2017). "Meditation-focused attention with the MBAS and solving anagrams". Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice. 4 (4): 348–366. doi:10.1037/cns0000113. ISSN 2326-5531. S2CID 151764564.
  53. ^ a b Tang YY, Ma Y, Wang J, Fan Y, Feng S, Lu Q, Yu Q, Sui D, Rothbart MK, Fan M, Posner MI (October 2007). "Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (43): 17152–6. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10417152T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707678104. PMC 2040428. PMID 17940025.
  54. ^ Chan D, Woollacott M (2007). "Effects of level of meditation experience on attentional focus: is the efficiency of executive or orientation networks improved?". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 13 (6): 651–7. doi:10.1089/acm.2007.7022. PMID 17718648. S2CID 26104244.
  55. ^ Anderson ND, Lau MA, Segal ZV, Bishop SR (2007). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control". Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 14 (6): 449–463. doi:10.1002/cpp.544.
  56. ^ Hölzel BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, Schuman-Olivier Z, Vago DR, Ott U (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (6): 537–59. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. PMID 26168376. S2CID 2218023.
  57. ^ Malinowski P (2013). "Neural mechanisms of attentional control in mindfulness meditation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 7: 8. doi:10.3389/fnins.2013.00008. PMC 3563089. PMID 23382709.
  58. ^ Marchand WR (28 July 2014). "Neural mechanisms of mindfulness and meditation: Evidence from neuroimaging studies". World Journal of Radiology. 6 (7): 471–479. doi:10.4329/wjr.v6.i7.471. ISSN 1949-8470. PMC 4109098. PMID 25071887.
  59. ^ a b Fabio RA, Towey GE (February 2018). "Long-term meditation: the relationship between cognitive processes, thinking styles and mindfulness". Cognitive Processing. 19 (1): 73–85. doi:10.1007/s10339-017-0844-3. PMID 29110263. S2CID 3477655.
  60. ^ Moore A, Gruber T, Derose J, Malinowski P (2012). "Regular, brief mindfulness meditation practice improves electrophysiological markers of attentional control". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 6: 18. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00018. PMC 3277272. PMID 22363278.
  61. ^ a b Chawla N, Marlatt GA (2010). "Mindlessness-Mindfulness". The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. American Cancer Society. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0549. ISBN 978-0-470-47921-6.
  62. ^ a b Baer RA (2003). "Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 10 (2): 125–143. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg015.
  63. ^ Wolkin JR (29 June 2015). "Cultivating multiple aspects of attention through mindfulness meditation accounts for psychological well-being through decreased rumination". Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 8: 171–180. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S31458. ISSN 1179-1578. PMC 4492627. PMID 26170728.
  64. ^ Ochsner KN, Gross JJ (May 2005). "The cognitive control of emotion". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (5): 242–9. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010. PMID 15866151. S2CID 151594.
  65. ^ Posner MI, Rothbart MK (2007). "Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science". Annual Review of Psychology. 58: 1–23. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085516. PMID 17029565. S2CID 8826493.
  66. ^ a b Goldin PR, Gross JJ (February 2010). "Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder". Emotion. 10 (1): 83–91. doi:10.1037/a0018441. PMC 4203918. PMID 20141305.
  67. ^ Cuthbert BN, Schupp HT, Bradley MM, Birbaumer N, Lang PJ (March 2000). "Brain potentials in affective picture processing: covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report". Biological Psychology. 52 (2): 95–111. doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(99)00044-7. PMID 10699350. S2CID 17202155.
  68. ^ Schupp HT, Cuthbert BN, Bradley MM, Cacioppo JT, Ito T, Lang PJ (March 2000). "Affective picture processing: the late positive potential is modulated by motivational relevance". Psychophysiology. 37 (2): 257–61. doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3720257. PMID 10731776.
  69. ^ Schupp HT, Junghöfer M, Weike AI, Hamm AO (June 2003). "Attention and emotion: an ERP analysis of facilitated emotional stimulus processing". NeuroReport. 14 (8): 1107–10. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.521.5802. doi:10.1097/00001756-200306110-00002. PMID 12821791. S2CID 14610024.
  70. ^ Brown KW, Goodman RJ, Inzlicht M (January 2013). "Dispositional mindfulness and the attenuation of neural responses to emotional stimuli". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 8 (1): 93–9. doi:10.1093/scan/nss004. PMC 3541486. PMID 22253259.
  71. ^ Ortner CN, Kilner SJ, Zelazo PD (2007). "Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task". Motivation and Emotion. 31 (4): 271–283. doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9076-7. S2CID 3114372.
  72. ^ Goldin P, Ziv M, Jazaieri H, Hahn K, Gross JJ (January 2013). "MBSR vs aerobic exercise in social anxiety: fMRI of emotion regulation of negative self-beliefs". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 8 (1): 65–72. doi:10.1093/scan/nss054. PMC 3541489. PMID 22586252.
  73. ^ a b Farb NA, Segal ZV, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Fatima Z, Anderson AK (December 2007). "Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2 (4): 313–22. doi:10.1093/scan/nsm030. PMC 2566754. PMID 18985137.
  74. ^ Beblo T, Pelster S, Schilling C, Kleinke K, Iffland B, Driessen M, Fernando S (September 2018). "Breath Versus Emotions: The Impact of Different Foci of Attention During Mindfulness Meditation on the Experience of Negative and Positive Emotions". Behavior Therapy. 49 (5): 702–714. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.12.006. PMID 30146138. S2CID 52092402.
  75. ^ Quirk GJ, Beer JS (December 2006). "Prefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion: convergence of rat and human studies". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 16 (6): 723–7. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.07.004. PMID 17084617. S2CID 17157089.
  76. ^ Chiesa A, Calati R, Serretti A (April 2011). "Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings". Clinical Psychology Review. 31 (3): 449–64. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003. PMID 21183265. S2CID 33953894.
  77. ^ a b Sevinc G, Hölzel BK, Hashmi J, Greenberg J, McCallister A, Treadway M, Schneider ML, Dusek JA, Carmody J, Lazar SW (June 2018). "Common and Dissociable Neural Activity After Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Relaxation Response Programs". Psychosomatic Medicine. 80 (5): 439–451. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000590. PMC 5976535. PMID 29642115.
  78. ^ "Mindfulness, Meditation, Relaxation Response Have Different Effects on Brain Function". 13 June 2018.
  79. ^ a b Bostock S, Crosswell AD, Prather AA, Steptoe A (2019). "Mindfulness on-the-go: Effects of a mindfulness meditation app on work stress and well-being". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 24 (1): 127–138. doi:10.1037/ocp0000118. ISSN 1939-1307. PMC 6215525. PMID 29723001.
  80. ^ Bartlett L, Buscot MJ, Bindoff A, Chambers R, Hassed C (2021). "Mindfulness Is Associated With Lower Stress and Higher Work Engagement in a Large Sample of MOOC Participants". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 724126. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724126. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8461060. PMID 34566805.
  81. ^ Basso JC, McHale A, Ende V, Oberlin DJ, Suzuki WA (2019). "Brief, daily meditation enhances attention, memory, mood, and emotional regulation in non-experienced meditators". Behavioural Brain Research. 356: 208–220. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.08.023. ISSN 0166-4328. PMID 30153464.
  82. ^ a b Surinrut P, Auamnoy T, Sangwatanaroj S (2016). "Enhanced happiness and stress alleviation upon insight meditation retreat: mindfulness, a part of traditional Buddhist meditation". Mental Health, Religion & Culture. 19 (7): 648–659. doi:10.1080/13674676.2016.1207618. ISSN 1367-4676. S2CID 152177044.
  83. ^ a b Ong JC, Moore C (2020). "What do we really know about mindfulness and sleep health?". Current Opinion in Psychology. 34: 18–22. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.08.020. PMID 31539830. S2CID 202248995.
  84. ^ Wang X, Li P, Yunlong Deng Y (2019). "The Effect of Mind-Body Therapies on Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 13: 9359807. doi:10.1155/2019/9359807. PMC 6393899. PMID 30894878.
  85. ^ Tang YY, Posner MI (January 2013). "Tools of the trade: theory and method in mindfulness neuroscience". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 8 (1): 118–20. doi:10.1093/scan/nss112. PMC 3541497. PMID 23081977.
  86. ^ "Becoming "pure Buddhist" (Part 2): vipassana meditation and the Theravada care of the self", The Buddhist Art of Living in Nepal, Routledge, pp. 161–187, 5 August 2016, doi:10.4324/9781315651064-10 (inactive 7 April 2024), retrieved 3 February 2024{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  87. ^ Chavan DV (2007), "Vipassana: The Buddha's tool to probe mind and body", Models of Brain and Mind - Physical, Computational and Psychological Approaches, Progress in Brain Research, vol. 168, Elsevier, pp. 247–253, doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(07)68019-4, ISBN 978-0-444-53050-9, PMID 18166399, retrieved 3 February 2024
  88. ^ Szekeres RA, Wertheim EH (December 2015). "Evaluation of Vipassana Meditation Course Effects on Subjective Stress, Well-being, Self-kindness and Mindfulness in a Community Sample: Post-course and 6-month Outcomes". Stress and Health. 31 (5): 373–381. doi:10.1002/smi.2562. ISSN 1532-3005. PMID 24515781.
  89. ^ Cahn BR, Delorme A, Polich J (February 2010). "Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation". Cognitive Processing. 11 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1007/s10339-009-0352-1. PMC 2812711. PMID 20013298.
  90. ^ Kakumanu RJ, Nair AK, Sasidharan A, John JP, Mehrotra S, Panth R, Kutty BM (2019). "State-trait influences of Vipassana meditation practice on P3 EEG dynamics". Meditation. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 244. pp. 115–136. doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.027. ISBN 978-0-444-64227-1. PMID 30732834. S2CID 73417633.
  91. ^ Khoury B, Knäuper B, Schlosser M, Carrière K, Chiesa A (January 2017). "Effectiveness of traditional meditation retreats: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 92: 16–25. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.11.006. ISSN 0022-3999. PMID 27998508.
  92. ^ Zeng X, Oei TP, Liu X (December 2014). "Monitoring Emotion Through Body Sensation: A Review of Awareness in Goenka's Vipassana". Journal of Religion and Health. 53 (6): 1693–1705. doi:10.1007/s10943-013-9754-6. ISSN 0022-4197. PMID 23846450. S2CID 10485156.
  93. ^ Watts V (2016). "Kundalini Yoga Found to Enhance Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults". Psychiatric News. 51 (9): 1. doi:10.1176/appi.pn.2016.4b11.
  94. ^ a b Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M (January 2006). "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509.
  95. ^ Hernández SE, Suero J, Rubia K, González-Mora JL (March 2015). "Monitoring the neural activity of the state of mental silence while practicing Sahaja yoga meditation". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 21 (3): 175–9. doi:10.1089/acm.2013.0450. PMID 25671603.
  96. ^ Hernández SE, Barros-Loscertales A, Xiao Y, González-Mora JL, Rubia K (February 2018). "Gray Matter and Functional Connectivity in Anterior Cingulate Cortex are Associated with the State of Mental Silence During Sahaja Yoga Meditation". Neuroscience. 371: 395–406. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.017. hdl:10234/175002. PMID 29275207.
  97. ^ Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA (September 2001). "Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation". Neuroscience Letters. 310 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8. PMID 11524157. S2CID 26624762.
  98. ^ Aftanas L, Golosheykin S (June 2005). "Impact of regular meditation practice on EEG activity at rest and during evoked negative emotions". The International Journal of Neuroscience. 115 (6): 893–909. doi:10.1080/00207450590897969. PMID 16019582. S2CID 23303346.
  99. ^ a b Manocha R, Black D, Spiro D, Ryan J, Stough C (March 2010). "Changing Definitions of Meditation – Is there a Physiological Corollary? Skin temperature changes of a mental silence orientated form of meditation compared to rest" (PDF). Journal of the International Society of Life Sciences. 28 (1): 23–31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
  100. ^ Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA (September 2002). "Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG during meditation". Neuroscience Letters. 330 (2): 143–6. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00745-0. PMID 12231432. S2CID 2515889.
  101. ^ a b Hendriks T (May 2018). "The effects of Sahaja Yoga meditation on mental health: a systematic review". Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine. 15 (3). doi:10.1515/jcim-2016-0163. PMID 29847314. S2CID 44076116.
  102. ^ a b Manocha R, Black D, Wilson L (2012). "Quality of life and functional health status of long-term meditators". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012: 1–9. doi:10.1155/2012/350674. PMC 3352577. PMID 22611427.
  103. ^ Manocha R (2014). "Meditation, mindfulness and mind-emptiness". Acta Neuropsychiatrica. 23: 46–7. doi:10.1111/j.1601-5215.2010.00519.x. S2CID 144683760.
  104. ^ Morgon A. Sahaja Yoga: an Ancient Path to Modern Mental Health? (Doctor of Clinical Psychology thesis). University of Plymouth.
  105. ^ Cahn BR, Polich J (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641. S2CID 2151810.
  106. ^ Sedlmeier P, Eberth J, Schwarz M, Zimmerman D, Haarig F, Jaeger S, Kunze S, et al. (May 2012). "The Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Meta-Analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 138 (6): 1139–1171. doi:10.1037/a0028168. PMID 22582738. The global analysis yielded quite comparable effects for TM, mindfulness meditation, and the other meditation procedures...So, it seems that the three categories we identified for the sake of comparison, TM, mindfulness meditation, and the heterogeneous category we termed other meditation techniques, do not differ in their overall effects.
  107. ^ Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, Ogedegbe G, Bisognano JD, Elliott WJ, Fuchs FD, Hughes JW, Lackland DT, Staffileno BA, Townsend RR, Rajagopalan S (2013). "Beyond medications and diet: alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Hypertension. 61 (6): 1360–83. doi:10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f. PMID 23608661.
  108. ^ Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA (2014). "Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis". JAMA Intern Med. 174 (3): 357–68. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196. ... we found low evidence of no effect or insufficient evidence that mantra meditation programs had an effect on any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes we examined.
  109. ^ Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA (2014). Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-Being. AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. PMID 24501780. Our review finds that the mantra meditation programs do not appear to improve any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes we examined, but the strength of this evidence varies from low to insufficient.
  110. ^ Bai Z, Chang J, Chen C, Li P, Yang K, Chi I (February 2015). "Investigating the effect of transcendental meditation on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Human Hypertension. 29 (11). Nature Publishing Group: 653–662. doi:10.1038/jhh.2015.6. ISSN 1476-5527. PMID 25673114. S2CID 22261.
  111. ^ Ooi SL, Giovino M, Pak SC (October 2017). "Transcendental meditation for lowering blood pressure: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 34. Elsevier: 26–34. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.008. ISSN 1873-6963. PMID 28917372. S2CID 4963470.
  112. ^ a b Kirby JN, Tellegen CL, Steindl SR (November 2017). "A Meta-Analysis of Compassion-Based Interventions: Current State of Knowledge and Future Directions". Behavior Therapy. 48 (6): 778–792. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003. PMID 29029675.
  113. ^ a b Galante J, Galante I, Bekkers MJ, Gallacher J (December 2014). "Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 82 (6): 1101–1114. doi:10.1037/a0037249. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 24979314.
  114. ^ a b Luberto CM, Shinday N, Song R, Philpotts LL, Park ER, Fricchione GL, Yeh GY (June 2018). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors". Mindfulness. 9 (3): 708–724. doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8. ISSN 1868-8527. PMC 6081743. PMID 30100929.
  115. ^ Brewer JA, Worhunsky PD, Gray JR, Tang YY, Weber J, Kober H (23 November 2011). "Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (50): 20254–20259. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10820254B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3250176. PMID 22114193.
  116. ^ Brewer JA, Worhunsky PD, Gray JR, Tang YY, Weber J, Kober H (December 2011). "Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (50): 20254–9. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10820254B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108. JSTOR 23060108. PMC 3250176. PMID 22114193.
  117. ^ Baer R (1 May 2010). Assessing Mindfulness and Acceptance Processes in Clients: Illuminating the Theory and Practice of Change. New Harbinger Publications. ISBN 978-1-60882-263-8.
  118. ^ a b Chambers R, Lo BC, Allen NB (1 June 2008). "The Impact of Intensive Mindfulness Training on Attentional Control, Cognitive Style, and Affect". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 32 (3): 303–322. doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9119-0. ISSN 1573-2819. S2CID 3329869.
  119. ^ Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Lutz A, Schaefer HS, Levinson DB, Davidson RJ (3 July 2007). "Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (27): 11483–11488. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10411483B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606552104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1903340. PMID 17596341.
  120. ^ a b Gard T, Taquet M, Dixit R, Hölzel BK, Dickerson BC, Lazar SW (16 March 2015). "Greater widespread functional connectivity of the caudate in older adults who practice kripalu yoga and vipassana meditation than in controls". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 9: 137. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00137. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 4360708. PMID 25852521.
  121. ^ Gard T, Taquet M, Dixit R, Hölzel BK, Dickerson BC, Lazar SW (2015). "Greater widespread functional connectivity of the caudate in older adults who practice kripalu yoga and vipassana meditation than in controls". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 9: 137. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00137. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 4360708. PMID 25852521.
  122. ^ Vago DR, Silbersweig DA (2012). "Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 6: 296. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00296. PMC 3480633. PMID 23112770.
  123. ^ Hölzel BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, Schuman-Olivier Z, Vago DR, Ott U (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (6): 537–559. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. PMID 26168376. S2CID 2218023.
  124. ^ a b Mrazek MD, Franklin MS, Phillips DT, Baird B, Schooler JW (28 March 2013). "Mindfulness Training Improves Working Memory Capacity and GRE Performance While Reducing Mind Wandering". Psychological Science. 24 (5): 776–781. doi:10.1177/0956797612459659. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 23538911. S2CID 17754950.
  125. ^ a b Xu J, Vik A, Groote IR, Lagopoulos J, Holen A, Ellingsen Ø, Davanger S (2014). "Nondirective meditation activates default mode network and areas associated with memory retrieval and emotional processing". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 86. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00086. ISSN 1662-5161. PMC 3935386. PMID 24616684.
  126. ^ Semple RJ (1 June 2010). "Does Mindfulness Meditation Enhance Attention? A Randomized Controlled Trial". Mindfulness. 1 (2): 121–130. doi:10.1007/s12671-010-0017-2. ISSN 1868-8535. S2CID 28567382.
  127. ^ a b c Brown KW, Creswell JD, Ryan RM (17 November 2015). Handbook of Mindfulness: Theory, Research, and Practice. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1-4625-2593-5.
  128. ^ Brown D, Forte M, Dysart M (June 1984). "Differences in visual sensitivity among mindfulness meditators and non-meditators". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 58 (3): 727–33. doi:10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.727. PMID 6382144. S2CID 38007120.
  129. ^ a b Tloczynski J, Santucci A, Astor-Stetson E (December 2000). "Perception of visual illusions by novice and longer-term meditators". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 91 (3 Pt 1): 1021–6. doi:10.2466/pms.2000.91.3.1021. PMID 11153836. S2CID 31828795.
  130. ^ a b Brown D, Forte M, Dysart M (June 1984). "Visual Sensitivity and Mindfulness Meditation". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 58 (3): 775–784. doi:10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.775. ISSN 0031-5125. PMID 6382145. S2CID 39549396.
  131. ^ Gallant SN (1 February 2016). "Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: Breaking down the benefit". Consciousness and Cognition. 40: 116–130. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005. ISSN 1053-8100. PMID 26784917. S2CID 10182245.
  132. ^ Bailey NW, Freedman G, Raj K, Spierings KN, Piccoli LR, Sullivan CM, Chung SW, Hill AT, Rogasch NC, Fitzgerald PB (16 October 2019). "Mindfulness meditators show enhanced working memory performance concurrent with different brain region engagement patterns during recall". bioRxiv: 801746. doi:10.1101/801746. S2CID 208590582.
  133. ^ Thompson LC (2004). "A Pilot Study of a Yoga and Meditation Intervention for Dementia Caregiver Stress". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 60 (6): 677–687. doi:10.1002/jclp.10259. PMID 15141399.
  134. ^ Cahn BR, Polich J (March 2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641. S2CID 2151810.
  135. ^ Flanagan SR, Zaretsky DH, Moroz A (2011). Medical Aspects of Disability, Fourth Edition (Fourth ed.). Springer. p. 596. ISBN 978-0-8261-2784-6. It is thought that some types of meditation might work by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system and increasing activity in the parasympathetic nervous system
  136. ^ Benson H (December 1997). "The relaxation response: therapeutic effect". Science. 278 (5344): 1694–5. Bibcode:1997Sci...278.1693B. doi:10.1126/science.278.5344.1693b. PMID 9411784.
  137. ^ Cromie WJ (18 April 2002). "Meditation changes temperatures: Mind controls body in extreme experiments". Harvard University Gazette. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007.
  138. ^ Benson H (2001). The Relaxation Response. HarperCollins. pp. 61–3. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.[non-primary source needed]
  139. ^ Luders E, Cherbuin N (17 May 2016). "Searching for the philosopher's stone: promising links between meditation and brain preservation". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1373 (1): 38–44. Bibcode:2016NYASA1373...38L. doi:10.1111/nyas.13082. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 27187107. S2CID 5043942.
  140. ^ Ramesh MG, Sathian B, Sinu E, Kiranmai SR (October 2013). "Efficacy of rajayoga meditation on positive thinking: an index for self-satisfaction and happiness in life". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 7 (10): 2265–7. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/5889.3488. PMC 3843423. PMID 24298493.
  141. ^ Campos D, Cebolla A, Quero S, Bretón-López J, Botella C, Soler J, García-Campayo J, Demarzo M, Baños RM (2016). "Meditation and happiness: Mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate the meditation–happiness relationship". Personality and Individual Differences. 93: 80–85. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.040. hdl:10234/157867.
  142. ^ Sato W, Kochiyama T, Uono S, Kubota Y, Sawada R, Yoshimura S, Toichi M (November 2015). "The structural neural substrate of subjective happiness". Scientific Reports. 5: 16891. Bibcode:2015NatSR...516891S. doi:10.1038/srep16891. PMC 4653620. PMID 26586449.
  143. ^ Kurth F, Luders E, Wu B, Black DS (2014). "Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxel-based Morphometry". Neuro. 1 (1): 23–26. doi:10.17140/NOJ-1-106. PMC 4306280. PMID 25632405.
  144. ^ Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, Lazar SW (January 2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research. 191 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979. PMID 21071182.
  145. ^ Kurth F, MacKenzie-Graham A, Toga AW, Luders E (January 2015). "Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu029. PMC 4994843. PMID 24643652.
  146. ^ Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Evans KC, Hoge EA, Dusek JA, Morgan L, Pitman RK, Lazar SW (March 2010). "Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 5 (1): 11–7. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp034. PMC 2840837. PMID 19776221.
  147. ^ Dambrun M (November 2016). "When the dissolution of perceived body boundaries elicits happiness: The effect of selflessness induced by a body scan meditation". Consciousness and Cognition. 46: 89–98. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.09.013. PMID 27684609. S2CID 23099927.
  148. ^ Anderson ND, Lau MA, Segal ZV, Bishop SR (2007). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control". Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 14 (6): 449–463. doi:10.1002/cpp.544.
  149. ^ Kabat-Zinn J (2013). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness (2nd ed.). Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-345-53972-4.
  150. ^ Nakata H, Sakamoto K, Kakigi R (2014). "Meditation reduces pain-related neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, secondary somatosensory cortex, and thalamus". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 1489. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01489. PMC 4267182. PMID 25566158.
  151. ^ Mehan S, Morris J (2018). "A literature review of Breathworks and mindfulness intervention". British Journal of Healthcare Management. 24 (5): 235–241. doi:10.12968/bjhc.2018.24.5.235.
  152. ^ Brown CA, Jones AK (March 2013). "Psychobiological correlates of improved mental health in patients with musculoskeletal pain after a mindfulness-based pain management program". The Clinical Journal of Pain. 29 (3): 233–44. doi:10.1097/AJP.0b013e31824c5d9f. PMID 22874090. S2CID 33688569.
  153. ^ a b c d Farias et al. (2020).
  154. ^ Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes (2000).
  155. ^ Shapiro Jr (1992).
  156. ^ Schlosser et al. (2019).
  157. ^ Goud SS (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation". Case Reports in Psychiatry. 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMC 9617715. PMID 36316997.
  158. ^ Yadav J, Bhardwaj A, Jangid P, Singh P, Gupta R (2023). "Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 211 (8): 634–638. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656. PMID 37505896.
  159. ^ Chan-Ob T, Boonyanaruthee V (1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 82 (9): 925–30. ISSN 0125-2208. PMID 10561951.
  160. ^ Schlosser M, Sparby T, Vörös S, Jones R, Marchant NL (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152.
  161. ^ Jaseja H (2018). "Is meditation associated with a potential risk of addiction? Warranting a greater insight". Epilepsy and Behaviour. 14 (4): 709. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.02.017. PMID 19236955.
  162. ^ Metzner R (2005). "Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness". In Earlywine M (ed.). Mind-Altering Drugs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 25–48. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165319.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-516531-9.
  163. ^ a b Fossella & Welwood 2011.
  164. ^ Hakuin (2010). Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin. Translated by Norman Waddell. Shambhala Publications.
  165. ^ Farias M, Wikholm C (2016). "Has the science of mindfulness lost its mind?". BJPsych Bulletin. 40 (6): 329–332. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.116.053686. PMC 5353526. PMID 28377813.
  166. ^ The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You? by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 ISBN 9781780287188
  167. ^ Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism by T. Joiner, 2017 ISBN 0190200626
  168. ^ McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality by R. Purser, 2019 ISBN 191224831X
  169. ^ Britton WB, Lindahl JR, Cooper DJ, Canby NK, Palitsky R (2021). "Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs". Clinical Psychological Science. 9 (6): 1185–1204. doi:10.1177/2167702621996340. PMC 8845498. PMID 35174010.
  170. ^ Britton WB, Lindahl JR, Cooper DJ, Canby NK, Palitsky R (2021). "Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs". Clinical Psychological Science. 9 (6): 1185–1204. doi:10.1177/2167702621996340. PMC 8845498. PMID 35174010.
  171. ^ a b Hafenbrack AC, LaPalme ML, Solal I (2022). "Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 123 (1): 28–54. doi:10.1037/pspa0000298. PMID 34941333.
  172. ^ Poulin MJ, Ministero LM, Gabriel S, Morrison CD, Naidu E (2021). "Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals". Psychological Science. 32 (11): 1699–1708. doi:10.1177/09567976211015184. PMID 34705576.
  173. ^ "How mindfulness can make you a darker person". bbc.com. 3 March 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  174. ^ Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG (1999). "3". Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change. New York: Guilford. ISBN 978-1-57230-481-9.
  175. ^ "Meditation and Mindfulness: What You Need To Know". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. June 2022.
  176. ^ Turner RP, Lukoff D, Barnhouse RT, Lu FG (July 1995). "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 183 (7): 435–44. doi:10.1097/00005053-199507000-00003. PMID 7623015.
  177. ^ Lutkajtis, Anna (2019). "Delineating the 'dark night' in Buddhist postmodernism". Literature & Aesthetics. 29 (2).
  178. ^ Britton, Willoughby B, Lindahl, Jared R, Cooper, David J, Canby, Nicholas K, Palitsky, Roman (2021). "Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs". Clinical Psychological Science. 9 (6). SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA: 1185–1204. doi:10.1177/2167702621996340. PMC 8845498. PMID 35174010.
  179. ^ Awasthi B (2013). "Issues and perspectives in meditation research: in search for a definition". Frontiers in Psychology. 3: 613. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00613. PMC 3541715. PMID 23335908.
  180. ^ Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE (January 2018). "Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13 (1): 66–69. doi:10.1177/1745691617727529. PMC 5817993. PMID 29016240.
  181. ^ Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, Ogedegbe G, Bisognano JD, Elliott WJ, Fuchs FD, Hughes JW, Lackland DT, Staffileno BA, Townsend RR, Rajagopalan S (June 2013). "Beyond Medications and Diet: Alternative Approaches to Lowering Blood Pressure: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association". Hypertension. 61 (6): 1360–83. doi:10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f. PMID 23608661.
  182. ^ "Meditation to Boost Health and Well-Being".
  183. ^ a b Davidson RJ, Kaszniak AW (October 2015). "Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Research on Mindfulness and Meditation". American Psychologist. 70 (7): 581–592. doi:10.1037/a0039512. PMC 4627495. PMID 26436310.
  184. ^ Deolindo CS, Ribeiro MW, Aratanha MA, Afonso RF, Irrmischer M, Kozasa EH (7 August 2020). "A Critical Analysis on Characterizing the Meditation Experience Through the Electroencephalogram". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 14: 53. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2020.00053. ISSN 1662-5137. PMC 7427581. PMID 32848645.

Sources

[edit]
Printed sources
Web-sources
  1. ^ "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. 26 May 2017. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
  2. ^ "Dangers of Meditation". Psychology Today. 2016. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
  3. ^ "Seriously... – Seriously... – Is Mindfulness Meditation Dangerous?". BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
  4. ^ "Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you?". www.independent.co.uk. 2015. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
  5. ^ Rocha T (25 June 2014). "The Dark Knight of the Soul". The Atlantic.
[edit]